One of the distinctive features of Roman Catholic worship is the use of incense during the Holy Mass, especially in its more solemn form. Despite the familiarity of using incense in worship—think here of the expression “smells and bells”—many Catholics still wonder: Why do we use incense in Mass? Where does it come from? What is the deeper meaning of this odiferous smoke?

In order to answer these questions, in this article, we will take a closer look at the third example of an ancient Jewish altar that sheds light on the Catholic altar of the Eucharistic sacrifice. I am speaking here of the golden “altar” of incense that the Old Testament describes as part of the Tabernacle of Moses (Exodus 30:1-10), and later, the Temple of Solomon (1 Chronicles 28:18). Here is a diagram of its location in the Tabernacle:

As we will see, just as the bronze altar of sacrifice prefigured the bloody sacrifice of Christ on Calvary, and the golden table of the Bread of the Presence prefigured the unbloody sacrifice of the Eucharist, so too the golden altar of incense prefigures the prayers of priest and faithful rising up to God in the Eucharistic sacrifice. In order to see this clearly, however, we will have to take a brief look at what Scripture and tradition reveal about the meaning and mystery of incense.

The Golden Altar of Incense

We begin by going back to the Old Testament roots of using incense in the liturgy.¹ The foundational account of the golden altar of incense can be found in the divine instructions given by God to Moses for building the sanctuary known as the Tabernacle: “You shall make an altar to burn incense upon; of acacia wood shall you make it…. It shall be square, and two cubits shall be its height; its horns shall be of one piece with it. And you shall overlay it with pure gold…. And Aaron shall burn fragrant incense on it… a perpetual incense before the LORD throughout your generations. You shall offer no unholy incense thereon, nor burnt offering, nor cereal offering; and you shall pour no libation thereon… it is most holy to the LORD” (Exodus 30:1-3, 7-10). Notice here that by referring to this as an “altar” (Hebrew mizbeach), Jewish Scripture clearly implies that the burning of incense is a kind of sacrifice.² Should there be any doubt about this, notice that the altar of incense is a square, with horns on the corners—almost identical to the bronze altar of animal sacrifice (cf. Exodus 27:1-8).

Just as the bronze altar of sacrifice prefigured the bloody sacrifice of Christ on Calvary, and the golden table of the Bread of the Presence prefigured the unbloody sacrifice of the Eucharist, so too the golden altar of incense prefigures the prayers of priest and faithful rising up to God in the Eucharistic sacrifice.

However, several clues suggest that the altar of incense is even more sacred than the bronze altar. For one thing, the altar of incense is made of “pure gold,” like all the other sacred vessels in the Holy Place, as opposed to less sacred bronze vessels in the Outer Court. Moreover, the altar of incense is explicitly described as “most holy to the LORD.” Finally, it is not just any priest, but the high priest (Aaron) who has the duty of burning “fragrant incense” on the golden altar as a “perpetual” offering to the God of Israel. Clearly, from an Old Testament point of view, incense is an important, even integral part, of divine worship in the Mosaic Tabernacle.

Smoke of Incense, Fire of Prayer

Why is incense so sacred and significant? And why does God insist that the incense have a “fragrant” aroma? One clue is given to us in the book of Psalms, which describes the offering of incense as a visible symbol of the prayer of the Psalmist rising up to God:

_{^{I call upon you, O LORD; make haste to me!
Give ear to my voice, when I call to thee!
Let my prayer be counted as incense before you,
and the lifting up of my hands as an evening sacrifice!}}

_{^{–Psalm 141:1-2}}

With these words, the Psalmist begs God to accept his “prayer” as if it were “incense” and the raising of his hands—a familiar sacred gesture in ancient iconography and the Hebrew Scriptures—as if it were the evening “sacrifice” (cf. Psalm 55:18).³ Taken together, these expressions suggest that just as the smoke of the incense rises up to heaven, so too the prayers of the Psalmist rise up into God’s presence.⁴ From a biblical point of view, therefore, where there is the smoke of incense, there is the fire of prayer. And just as a sacrificial “offering by fire” is “a pleasing odor to the LORD” (Leviticus 1:9), so too “The prayer of the upright is his delight” (Proverbs 15:8).

Malachi’s Prophecy

Another reason incense is significant is because the Old Testament describes the future age of salvation as characterized by a surprising use of incense in worship. In the prophet Malachi’s rebuke of the corrupt priests in his day, the prophet declares that one day, incense will no longer be offered in only one place—the Jerusalem Temple—but everywhere—even among the Gentiles: “I have no pleasure in you [priests], says the LORD of hosts, and I will not accept an offering from your hands. For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations, and in every place incense is offered to my name, and a pure offering… says the LORD of hosts” (Malachi 1:10-11).

It is difficult to overstate just how puzzling this oracle was for its original readers. For any ancient Jew would have known that according to the law of Moses, sacrifice could only be licitly offered in one place: the Jerusalem Temple (compare Deuteronomy 12:10-14). Yet here is the prophet Malachi saying that not only will incense be offered to God “in every place,” but that a “pure offering” of bread (Hebrew minchah) will be offered “among the nations”—that is, the “Gentiles” (Hebrew goyim).⁵

Indeed, Malachi’s oracle would go on to become one of the most frequently cited Old Testament prophecies by the early Church Fathers, who saw its fulfillment in the Eucharistic sacrifice being offered among the Gentiles.⁶ In fact, in the Roman Missal of Paul VI, Malachi’s prophecy is quoted almost verbatim in Eucharistic Prayer III, when the priest prays: “You never cease to gather a people to yourself, so that from the rising of the sun to its setting, a pure sacrifice (Latin oblatio munda) may be offered to your name.”⁷ This is the exact same expression found in the Vulgate translation of Malachi’s oracle of a “pure sacrifice” (Latin oblatio munda) offered among the “Gentiles” (Latin gentibus) (Malachi 1:11, Latin Vulgate).

The Altar and Incense in Heaven

When we turn from the Old Testament to the New, we do not find explicit references to the use of incense in the early Christian liturgy. However, according to the book of Revelation, the golden altar of incense in the Jerusalem Temple has a heavenly counterpart: “Another angel came and stood at the altar with a golden censer; and he was given much incense to mingle with the prayers of all the saints upon the golden altar before the throne; and the smoke of the incense rose with the prayers of the saints from the hand of the angel before God” (Revelation 8:3-4).

This is a truly stunning vision of the heavenly liturgy. Just as the Jewish priests on earth offer incense at the golden altar in the Temple, so too the angels in heaven offer “much incense” at the “golden altar” before God’s throne. And just as the book of Psalms describes incense as a symbol of prayer ascending to heaven (Psalm 141:2), so too the book of Revelation identifies “the smoke of the incense” as “the prayers of the saints”—that is, those followers of Jesus still on earth—rising up from the hands of the angels to the throne of God.⁸

Altar of Incense in Sacred Tradition

So much for sacred Scripture. What about the use of incense in the Church’s liturgical tradition? Though much could be said, three points stand out as worth highlighting.⁹ First, according to Origen of Alexandria, the smell of sacred incense reveals how God sees human prayer that is truly offered from the heart: “The type of incense symbolizes prayer…. This is the incense that God seeks to be offered by human beings to him, from which he receives a ‘pleasing odor,’ prayers from a pure heart and good conscience in which God truly receives a pleasing warmth” (Origen, Homilies on Leviticus 13.5.2).¹⁰

According to Origen, from a mystagogical point of view, incense is not just a visible sign of human prayer going up into heaven, but an odiferous sign of how much God delights in prayers that truly rise up from the depths of a pure human heart.

The book of Revelation identifies “the smoke of the incense” as “the prayers of the saints”—that is, those followers of Jesus still on earth—rising up from the hands of the angels to the throne of God.

Second, according to St. Ambrose of Milan, the use of incense in the Eucharistic liturgy was also seen as a visible sign of the presence of the angels surrounding the altar: “It pleased God that we also, when we incense the altars, when we present the sacrifice, be assisted by the angel, or rather that the angel make himself visible. For you cannot doubt that the angel is there when Christ is there…” (Ambrose, Commentary on Luke 1.28).¹¹

According to Ambrose, where there is the smoke of incense, not only is there the fire of prayer, but there too are the angels—the invisible spirits who bring God’s messages to us and our prayers to him.

Third and finally, in the Middle Ages, St. Thomas Aquinas tells us that incense was used both to increase the “reverence” (Latin reverentia) due to the Eucharist—in part by driving away bad smells!—and to make visible the invisible effects of Christ’s grace: “We use incense, not as commanded by a ceremonial precept of the Law, but as prescribed by the Church…. It has reference to two things: first, to the reverence due to this sacrament, i.e., in order by its good odor, to remove any disagreeable smell that may be about the place; secondly, it serves to show the effect of grace… from Christ it spreads to the faithful by the work of His ministers, according to 2 Cor. 2:14: ‘He manifests the odor of his knowledge by us in every place;’ and therefore when the altar which represents Christ, has been incensed on every side, then all are incensed in their proper order” (Summa Theologiae III, q. 83, art. 5). What a beautiful combination of pragmatism and mysticism! Even to this day, in the Roman liturgy, after the offerings, the cross, and the altar are incensed by the priest, the deacon or acolyte incenses the priest and the people—thereby symbolizing the grace of Christ, which flows from the altar, through his priests and ministers, to the people.¹²

Mystery of Incense in Mass

With all of this biblical background in mind, we can bring this article to a close by asking: How does the ancient Jewish altar of incense shed light on the mystery of the Catholic altar today?

For one thing, it seems clear that the use of incense in the Catholic liturgy is not some puzzling anomaly or outdated medieval relic, but an ancient and venerable tradition that goes all the way back to the Old Testament. For this reason alone, we should strive to cultivate an appreciation for its use in the Mass today, especially in the dual incensation rites of the liturgy of the Word (the Book of the Gospels) and the liturgy of the Eucharist (the offerings, cross, altar, priest, ministers, and people).¹³ Making Catholics more familiar with the centrality of the golden altar of incense in ancient Jewish worship might go a long way toward helping them appreciate its role in the contemporary liturgy.

The use of incense in the Catholic liturgy is not some puzzling anomaly or outdated medieval relic, but an ancient and venerable tradition that goes all the way back to the Old Testament.

Moreover, as the New Testament reveals, the prayers of the saints on earth continue to rise up like incense before the heavenly altar of incense (Revelation 8:3). According to the teaching of the Second Vatican Council, there is a correlation between the earthly and heavenly liturgies: “In the earthly liturgy we share in a foretaste of that heavenly liturgy… where Christ is sitting at the right hand of God…” (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Sacrosanctum Concilium, no. 8). If the earthly Mass is a foretaste of the heavenly liturgy, then it is certainly fitting that we should use incense in the earthly celebration of the Eucharist. This would also help remind us that the liturgy is not just a rite or ritual, but, in its deepest mystery, the prayer of Christ and his Church.

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the incensation of the altar itself during the liturgy of the Eucharist can be a powerful reminder that it is not just the altar of sacrifice or the Bread of the Presence that is fulfilled in the Mass, but also the golden altar of incense. Consider the teaching of the Roman Missal itself on the biblical roots of incense in the liturgy: “The Priest may incense the gifts placed on the altar and then incense the cross and the altar itself, so as to signify the Church’s offering and prayer rising like incense in the sight of God…. Thurification or incensation is an expression of reverence and of prayer, as is signified in Sacred Scripture” (cf. Psalm 140 [141]:2; Revelation 8:3) (General Instruction of the Roman Missal, nos. 75, 276).

In these days when more and more Catholics—especially the young—are hungering for reverence in liturgy and deeper lives of prayer, these words of the Missal can provide a wonderful guide to help us better understand the splendor of sacred incense and the mystery of the Catholic altar.

To read Dr. Pitre’s other installments, On the Bronze Altar and The Golden Table, see the May and July 2025 issues of Adoremus Bulletin HERE and HERE.

1. See Kjeld Nielsen, “Incense,” Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Freedman, vol. 3 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 340–342.
2. See William H. C. Propp, Exodus 19–40, vol. 2A of Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 473, who notes the oddity: “Etymologically, mizbēach… should denote an altar for animal sacrifice.”
3. See Frank Lothar Hossfeld and Eric Zenger, Psalms 3: A Commentary on Psalms 101–150, trans. Linda M. Maloney, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2011), 558.
4. Nielsen, “Incense,” 407: “The incense smoke carries the prayer to God.”
5. See Andrew E. Hill, Malachi, vol. 25D of Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 218: “The prophet’s avowal of the worship of YHWH among the nations in verse 11 remains a crux interpretum.” He sees it as a reference to “the future establishment of the kingship of God over all the earth.”
6. See Uwe Michael Lang, A Short History of the Roman Mass (Ignatius Press, 2024), 21-22, who cites Didache 14, Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 41, and Irenaeus, Against Heresies IV.17-18 as examples.
7. Roman Missal, Order of Mass, no. 108 (Eucharistic Prayer III).
8. See Craig R. Koester, Revelation, vol. 38A of Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 379: “The term ‘saints’ or ‘holy ones’ (hagioi) was used for God’s people in Jewish tradition (Ps 34:10; Dan 7:21) and early Christianity (Acts 9:13)… Revelation uses it for the followers of Jesus (Rev 14:12; 17:6).”
9. For a full study, see Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Scenting Salvation: Ancient Christianity and the Olfactory Imagination (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006).
10. In Harvey, Scenting Salvation, 17.
11. In Lawrence J. Johnson, ed., Worship in the Early Church: An Anthology of Historical Sources, 4 vols. (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2009), 2:19.
12. See General Instruction of the Roman Missal, no. 178.
13. See General Instruction of the Roman Missal, no. 178, 276-77.