Old Testament priests ceremonially place their hands on the animals to be sacrificed. St. Thomas the Apostle witnesses to the Divinity of the risen Christ by exclaiming, “My Lord and my God!” The early Christian martyr St. Lawrence is roasted alive on a gridiron. The Manichean heresy threatens Catholic orthodoxy. The Ostrogoths overrun Italy. The Protestant Reformers deny that the Mass is a true sacrifice.
What do these apparently unconnected historical events have in common? Every time a priest prays the Roman Canon of the Mass, the prayer of the Church directs attention to these and many other events that helped shape the Church as we know it.
The supreme act of worship is the Sacrifice of the Mass, and the Roman Canon (or Eucharistic Prayer I) forms the heart of the Mass. The word “canon” comes from a Greek word and means a rule, measure, or standard. So, the Canon of the Mass is the standard of thanksgiving and blessing in the celebration of the Mass. The Canon is made up of the words of Our Lord, of the tradition of the Apostles, and the legislated prayers of the Church over the centuries.
General Development
The general historical development of the Roman Canon is not easy to document. Scholars continue to propose different theories on the origins of the Roman Canon. But we need not be excessively burdened with the details of scholarly analysis for purposes of this article. We will limit our observations to an outline of the general structure of the Roman Canon with a few comments on how the Canon probably evolved. Like the canon of sacred Scripture, the form and content of the Roman Canon presents us with many layers of meaning that can be explored only by study and prayer.
The Canon of the Mass began to take shape in the early centuries of the Church. From the beginning, Our Lord’s words of institution (found in the synoptic Gospels and St. Paul’s letter to the Corinthians) were central to the Canon. By the fourth century, a certain fixed pattern of prayers could be discerned to surround, almost as concentric circles, the words of Consecration. The patterns included prayers of praise, thanksgiving, blessing, and intercession.
Like an old homestead that has been modified over the years to meet the needs of a growing family, the Roman Canon represents the glorious history of the family of God, the Church.
The fourth century, the age of Constantine and the conversion of the Roman Empire, saw the translation of the Roman Rite into the vernacular. Of course, Latin was the vernacular language of the Roman empire. But the vocabulary chosen for use in the translation from the Canon’s Greek carefully avoided common Latin. A Roman citizen listening to the Canon in Latin would be struck by its elevated vocabulary with a distinctly sacred character.
Although significant adjustments were approved in subsequent centuries, including changes approved by the Fathers of the Second Vatican Council, the present form of the Canon in substance dates from the seventh century (however, there were and continue to be variations within the body of the Canon). Since the seventh century, the Roman Canon was the dominant—almost exclusive—Eucharistic prayer in use for the Roman Rite. In the 16th century, Pope St. Pius V made it universal with the exception of rites that could show a 200-year history (Milan, the Dominicans, Lyons, and some others). Hence, the Roman Canon represents, par excellence, an ancient tradition of organic liturgical growth.
The Roman Canon represents, par excellence, an ancient tradition of organic liturgical growth.
The traditional body of the Roman Canon begins after the preface of the Eucharistic prayer and the intervening Sanctus (“Holy, holy, holy Lord”). It concludes with the great “Amen” following the Per ipsum (“Through him, with him, in him”). Still, the preface and the Sanctus are integral to the Canon. The preface is not just a narrative preamble to the Canon. It is part of the action of the Mass. Recounting the mighty deeds of God, the prayer identifies the special motives of thanksgiving (the meaning of eucharistia) according to the liturgical feast or season. The Sanctus expresses the joy of the angels who beckon the Church to enter into the “cosmic liturgy” of the Mass. The Sanctus signals that the Church militant is about to join the Church triumphant as well as the Church suffering in worship of the Father: “heaven and earth are full of your glory.”
After the Sanctus, the body of the Roman Canon may be considered in three sections: (1) the five petitions or intercessions before the Consecration; (2) the Consecration, and (3) the five intercessions after the Consecration with a final prayer. The Canon is recited alone by the priest, signifying his unique position among the people in the exercise of his priestly office. In this regard he is like the high priest of the Old Testament who once a year entered the Holy of Holies with the blood of the sacrificial animal (Hebrews 9:7). In due course, the priest would recite the Canon (after the Sanctus) in a low voice while the people engaged in silent prayer. This further dramatized the sacrificial character of the Mass because the silence highlighted the unique role of the ministerial priest. This was the standard practice until the Second Vatican Council. Reforms subsequent to the Council introduced the vernacular translation of the Roman Canon along with several other Eucharistic prayers. The translations were intended to be heard by the congregation and are now usually read aloud by the priest.
Prayers before Consecration
The five prayers or “intercessions” that precede the Consecration are as follows: (1) “To you, therefore, most merciful Father” (the Te igitur); (2) “Remember, Lord, your servants” (the Memento); (3) “In communion with” (the Communicantes); (4) ‘‘Therefore, Lord, we pray” (the Hanc igitur); and (5) “Be pleased, O God, we pray” (the Quam oblationem). In the first prayer, an intercession is made that the gifts may be accepted and blessed so that they may bring blessings on the whole Church; the second prayer petitions for blessings upon the congregation and specific members of the faithful; the third requests the assistance of the saints in effecting the first two intercessions; the fourth intercession specifies the ultimate purpose of the offering, that is, eternal salvation; and the fifth invokes the final blessing on the gifts as a sacrificial offering immediately before the Consecration.
In the first prayer, “To you, therefore, most merciful Father,” we pray for the whole Church, the heads of the Church, and promoters of the faith in general. The Canon begins by directing our attention above our individual needs. By keeping the whole Church in mind, we can effectively give glory to God. Our personal sanctification depends upon our participation in the life of the Church, the Mystical Body of Christ.
The second prayer, “Remember, Lord, your servants,” commemorates the living, the “Church militant.” The priest prays for himself, for all those present, and for all those he calls to mind during a slight pause during the prayer. The phrase “or they offer it for themselves” reminds the faithful of the material offerings (such as their offertory contributions and Mass stipends) and, more importantly, the spiritual offerings (such as their sorrows, their temptations, their joys, and their very lives) they bring to the Mass to be offered in union with the sacrifice of Christ.
The Sanctus expresses the joy of the angels who beckon the Church to enter into the “cosmic liturgy” of the Mass.
The third prayer heightens the action. The intercession, “In communion with,” establishes our link to the Church triumphant: the saints and the apostles. The present generation fades into the background as we remember the faith of our fathers. The name of the Blessed Virgin is invoked first to express her dignity as the greatest of the saints. After her name, Pope John XXIII inserted the name of her spouse, St. Joseph.
In the fifth and sixth centuries, the Church inserted the names of the martyrs most honored at the time. Numbered among them are the three martyred popes who immediately succeeded St. Peter and the deacon Lawrence. Five laymen are also listed, including the physicians Cosmas and Damian, the patron saints of dentists, doctors, and barbers. The Apostles mentioned are those chosen personally by the Lord to continue his work. (Hence, St. Matthias, chosen after the Ascension to replace Judas, appears in the listing of saints after the Consecration.) A total of 24 saints are listed, beginning with Peter. The number echoes the Book of Revelation and represents a fusion of the Old Testament (12 patriarchs) with the New Testament (12 Apostles). Certain high solemnities (e.g., Epiphany, Pentecost) have their own proper form of the “In communion with” text.
The listing reminds the faithful to consider the living reality and presence of favorite saints (and all the saints) in the celebration of the celestial liturgy. St. Lawrence, for example, was one of the most venerated martyrs of the early Roman Church. They fondly recalled that when the Roman prefect demanded he surrender to him the “treasures of the Church,” St. Lawrence presented an assembly of the poor supported by the Church. When the astonished prefect protested, St. Lawrence insisted that these were “treasures of the Church.” For insulting the worldly sensibilities of the authorities, Lawrence was roasted to death on a gridiron. Having suffered a long time, he turned to his tormentors and said, “Let my body be turned; one side is broiled enough.” Hence, St. Lawrence is venerated as the patron of the poor—and cooks!
After the pause to invoke the saints, the fourth prayer before the Consecration, “Therefore, Lord, we pray,” connects with the first and second prayers of the Canon. This intercession begs God to accept the offerings of the faithful in order that we might be delivered from eternal damnation and numbered among the saints in glory. But since the seventh century, we also pray for peace on earth. At that time, Italy was overrun by the hostile armies of the Ostrogoths. Pope St. Gregory the Great added the entreaty “order our days in your peace” in response to the crisis. There is also a special version of this prayer for use during the Easter Octave.
Our personal sanctification depends upon our participation in the life of the Church, the Mystical Body of Christ.
The fifth and final intercession before the Consecration is the “Be pleased, O God, we pray.” By this prayer, the priest prays that God may bless the offering of bread and wine so that it may become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. The priest extends his hands over the gifts of bread and wine similar to the priest of the Old Covenant who imposed hands on the victim that was offered up to God in sacrifice. The Jews intended by this action to transfer symbolically the guilt of their own sins to the animal victim which was immolated. The gesture was added in response to the Protestant Reformers who denied the sacrificial character of the Mass. The gesture reminds us that Christ sacrifices himself as a Victim on the altar for all of mankind. The sacrifice is approved “in every respect” because it is unreservedly blessed; it is “acknowledged” because it is carried out according to the command of the Lord; and it is “spiritual,” unlike the irrational victims of the Old Law. Anticipating the Consecration, the sacrifice is therefore “acceptable.”
The Consecration
The words of the Consecration are particularly solemn because they make present upon the altar the sacrifice of Christ upon Calvary. They are taken from the words of Our Lord in instituting the Eucharist and from apostolic tradition. The person of the priest withdraws. The priest speaks in the first person indicating that he acts in the person of Christ as Head of the Mystical Body. Christ himself, through the instrumentality of the priest, utters the words, “This is my Body.” It is Christ, the invisible High Priest, who offers himself up in sacrifice by the hands and by the lips of the visible priest.
The phrase “The mystery of faith” was inserted into the consecration narrative of the wine as early as the sixth or seventh centuries. Over the centuries, this phrase was proclaimed by the deacon during the consecration of the wine because the deacon’s liturgical task has traditionally been custody of the chalice. But following the Second Vatican Council, the phrase was placed after the consecration of the wine, inviting the faithful to respond with “We proclaim your Death, O Lord, and profess your Resurrection until you come again” (or two similar formulas).
The words of the Consecration are particularly solemn because they make present upon the altar the sacrifice of Christ upon Calvary.
The Sanctus bell, introduced in the 13th century, is rung during the elevation of the host and chalice as a signal to the faithful that the consecration has taken place and to invite their participation and adoration during the elevation. The priest genuflects in adoration after the consecration of the bread and again after the consecration of the wine. These gestures are the Church’s answer to a theological opinion in the 12th century which erroneously held that the host was not consecrated until after the wine had been consecrated. In the 20th century, Pope St. Pius X encouraged the faithful to gaze upon the host and chalice and silently call to mind the words of St. Thomas the Apostle, “My Lord and my God!” in witness to the divinity of Christ.
Prayers after Consecration
The five intercessions that follow the Consecration are as follows: (1) “Therefore, O Lord, as we celebrate the memorial” (the Anamnesis); (2) “Be pleased to look upon these offerings” (the Supra quae); (3) “In humble prayer” (the Supplices); (4) “Remember also, Lord, your servants” (the Memento of the dead); and, (5) “To us, also, your servants, who, though sinners” (the Nobis quoque peccatoribus).
The first three intercessions are sacrificial prayers. They are similar to and balance the last two intercessions that precede the Consecration. These two sets of prayers on both sides of the Consecration are prayers of oblation or offering. But before the Consecration, the prayers refer to the material offerings of bread and wine at the same time anticipating the coming Consecration; after the Consecration, the oblation prayers refer to the Body and Blood of Christ.
Specifically, the first prayer after the Consecration is called Anamnesis (literally, “remembrance”). It commemorates the passion, death, resurrection, and ascension of the Lord in obedience to his command, “Do this in memory of me.” The Church offers to the heavenly Father the body and blood of Christ himself. The phrase, “we your servants,” refers to the priests (celebrant and concelebrants) while “your holy people” refers to the priesthood of the faithful who also make the offering.
The second prayer after the Consecration petitions God the Father to look upon the sacrifice “with a serene and kindly countenance.” Of course, the sacrifice of Christ is absolutely pleasing to the Father. But to the extent that the sacrifice is that of the Church, it is pleasing to God according to the degree of holiness the faithful possess. The sacrifices of Abel, Abraham, and Melchizedek are specifically mentioned in scripture as being accepted by God. So, the Church looks to the example of these great Old Testament personages as examples of the dispositions the faithful ought to possess. Interestingly, Pope Leo I added the words “a holy sacrifice, a spotless victim” by way of refuting the Manichean heresy which denied the goodness of material creation. The Manicheans maintained that the use of wine in the Eucharist was sinful!
The third prayer requests the assistance of an angel in delivering the sacrifice to the heavenly Father and descending, in return, with God’s rich blessings and grace. The priest bows down before God and his altar in adoration. Rising, he then makes the sign of the Cross to show that the priest, and the faithful in his name, have received the Father’s blessings through the sacrifice of the Cross. The angel invoked in this prayer is suggested by the Book of Revelation: “And another angel came and stood at the altar with a golden censer; and he was given much incense to mingle with the prayers of all the saints upon the golden altar before the throne; and the smoke of the incense rose with the prayers of the saints from the hand of the angel before God” (Revelation 8:3-4).
The second half of this prayer anticipates the reception of Holy Communion: “that all of us, who through this participation at the altar receive the most holy Body and Blood of your Son.” Shortly before the Second Vatican Council, Pope Pius XII, in his encyclical Mediator Dei, encouraged priests to distribute to the people Communion hosts which have been consecrated at the Mass that is being celebrated. Current liturgical legislation strongly urges this practice as well. It more clearly establishes the inner unity of the Mass as a sacrifice that brings “every grace and heavenly blessing” upon the participants of the sacred liturgy.
The fourth prayer petitions God to remember those who have died as Christians. Before the Consecration, the Church militant was remembered and the Church triumphant was invoked. Now the priest calls to mind the Church suffering as he pauses for a few moments. It is appropriate for the faithful to join the priest in remembering the names of deceased friends and relatives, including the intention of the day.
The sacrifices of Abel, Abraham, and Melchizedek are specifically mentioned in scripture as being accepted by God.
The Church has always encouraged the faithful to pray for the dead and to take consolation in the prayers offered for the dead. In the early Church, St. Cyril of Jerusalem wrote: “We remember also those who have fallen asleep, because these prayers, offered when the most holy sacrifice lies before us on the altar, will be of the greatest benefit to those for whom we pray.” St. Augustine comments that even those who have neither parents, nor children, nor friends, nor relations left to pray for them when they are dead, can count at least on the prayers of Mother Church.
The fifth prayer recognizes the faithful as sinners who beg to be numbered among the saints. The listing of saints echoes the listing recited before the Consecration. But this time, the saints are drawn from all states of life. The saints listed include a prophet (John the Baptist), a deacon (Stephen), an apostle (Matthias), bishops (Barnabas and Ignatius), a pope (Alexander), a priest (Marcellinus), an exorcist (Peter), married women (Felicity and Perpetua), virgins (Agatha, Lucy, and Cecilia), and a widow (Anastasia). Regardless of vocation, with God’s grace, we are encouraged to fight the enemies of salvation as the saints have done.
The closing prayer of the Canon begins with ‘‘Through whom you continue to make all these good things,” and concludes with the doxology “Through him, and with him, and in him.” The prayer acknowledges that even irrational creation is presented to the Father through the cross of Christ. All gifts that we dare to offer come to us through and in Christ. But the highest possible honor and glory given to God is the sacrifice of Christ himself.
The Canon concludes with the faithful breaking their long silence to express their assent: an “Amen” is recited or sung in response as the Communion rite is anticipated. Like “Alleluia” and “Hosanna,” the Hebrew word “Amen” is one of the few words used in the Mass that is common to most language groups. It means “So be it” and thus constitutes a sublime act of faith in the sacrifice that has been accomplished. The “Amen,” sung communally, prepares the faithful for the same act of faith in the real presence at Communion time.
Like an old homestead that has been modified over the years to meet the needs of a growing family, the Roman Canon represents the glorious history of the family of God, the Church. Its earnest intercessions and profound gestures, often added in response to the demands of historical circumstances, have endured the test of time. Nothing else in Catholic prayer is comparable to it in the honor and glory it gives to God and in the blessings it confers on mankind. The Roman Canon is a living family heirloom of sanctification and Christian hope.
